
The unique properties of breast milk make it the best source of nutrients for infants [5]. The AAP policy on breastfeeding statement on breastfeeding specifies that breast milk is the only source of nutrition a healthy infant requires for about first six months of life [5].
- Protection against infection such as acute otitis media-Acute otitis media (AOM), commonly referred to as middle ear infection, is a common infection experienced by children, and can be prevented by the bactericidal properties of breast milk [7,8].
- Protection against gastro enteritis and diarrhea-Human milk protect against diarrhea by coating the intestinal lining and killing pathogens [9].
- Protection against serious infections such as lower respiratory tract infection namely pneumonia, respiratory syncytial virus bronchitis and childhood asthma – The antibodies and bactericidal properties in breast milk help combat severe lower RTIs [7].
- Protection against necrotizing enterocolitis-In a study conducted by IP and colleagues, found an absolute risk difference of 5 percent between infants who were fed breast milk and those who were not in the development of necrotizing enterocolitis [10].
- Protection against leukemia-The immune factors in human milk may have a protective effect against leukemia-related viruses.
- Protection against sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)-infections can lead to inflammatory responses in the respiratory and cardiac systems, but the anti-inflammatory agents in human milk help control infection and prevent illnesses that may be precursors to SIDS [11].
- Obesity - Breastfeeding may protect against the development of through behavioral and hormonal mechanisms [12].
The breast feeding mothers are at a lower level of risk of developing certain diseases and as in general longer duration of breastfeeding are directly associated with improved health outcomes. For a mother, it helps in various ways:-
- Reduces post partum bleeding and hemorrhage risk.
- Longer birth intervals, giving mothers’ bodies more time to recover from pregnancy and childbirth.
- Also provides as a non-pharmacological method of family planning.
- Breast cancer - Women who breastfeed may be protected from breast cancer by reduced estrogen exposure through removal via breast fluid, delayed ovulation, an anti-inflammatory response or other mechanisms [13].
- Ovarian cancer-Suppressed ovulation or decreased gonadotropin levels, which occur through oral contraceptive use and breastfeeding, [14,15] are mechanisms by which the risk of developing ovarian cancer may be reduced.
Over the past 50 years, ECC has been discussed extensively in the scientific literature. Caries in infants and young children has long been recognized as a clinical syndrome, described by Belterami in 1930s as “Les dents noire de tout-petits” which means “black teeth of the very young.” Fass is perhaps the first author in this regard for defining the term “Nursing bottle mouth.” Subsequently, other terms such as “bottle mouth caries”, “nursing caries”, “nursing bottle syndrome, “rampant caries”, “nursing bottle mouth”, “milk bottle syndrome”, “baby bottle tooth decay”, “breast milk tooth decay” and “facio-lingual pattern of decay” have also been used in literature [1].
- Caries on a smooth surface in children younger than three years of age.
- Any smooth surface of an anteroposterior deciduous tooth which is decayed, missing (due to caries) or filled, in children between three and five years.
- Decayed, filled, and missing teeth index (dmft) equal to or greater than 4 at the age of 3, 5 at the age of 4 and 6 at the age of 5 years [16].
Primary risk factors
- Substrate
- Susceptible tooth/host
- Cariogenic microorganisms
- Dental Plaque
- Bottle feeding
- Breastfeeding
- Oral hygiene
- Fluoride
The disease of ECC is the presence of one or more decayed (non-cavitated or cavitated lesions), missing (due to caries), or filled tooth surfaces in any primary tooth in a child under the age of six. Any sign of smooth-surface caries is indicative of severe early childhood caries (S-ECC) in children younger than three years of age. From ages three through five, even one or more cavitated, missing (due to caries), or filled smooth surfaces in primary maxillary anterior teeth or a decayed, missing, or filled score of greater than or equal to four (age 3), greater than or equal to five (age 4), or greater than or equal to six (age 5) surfaces also constitutes S-ECC [18]. ‘The risk of potentially devastating nursing- pattern dental decay exists for the breast-fed child as it does for the bottle-fed child’.
Type I (mild to moderate) ECC
Isolated carious lesion(s) involving molars and or incisors. Cariogenic food, poor oral hygiene contributes to it. This type of ECC is usually found in children who are 2 to 5 years old.
Labiolingual carious lesions on maxillary incisors with or without molar caries depending on the age of the child and stage of the disease; and unaffected mandibular incisors. The etiology is usually related to inappropriate use of a feeding bottle, ad libitum breast feeding or a combination of both, with or without poor oral hygiene. Poor oral hygiene adds up to the caries. This type of ECC could be found soon after the first teeth erupt and if not controlled, it can proceed to type III ECC.
Carious lesions affecting almost all teeth including lower incisors. This condition is found between the ages of 3 to 5years. The condition is rampant and generally involves tooth surface/s that are unaffected by caries e.g. mandibular incisors.
ECC is not self-limiting. If treatment for ECC is delayed, the difficulty in treatment and the cost effectiveness increases. The most common immediate consequence of untreated dental caries is dental pain affecting their eating, talking, playing and sleeping. Children having ECC are at greater risk of developing more caries in their primary and permanent dentition. Severe ECC can deteriorate the child’s anterior esthetics at an early age. Subsequently, the child may suffer from difficulties involving speech articulation as these initial years are critical for speech development. Children with ECC can also experience delayed physical development, especially in height and weight. The pain caused by ECC may lead to a reduced appetite resulting in malnutrition. In fact, loss of teeth often leads to psychological trauma in children from dental procedures required to restore their teeth. Criticism by siblings, peers and family members may lead to poor self-esteem [16].
- U.S. Public Health Service. Office of the Surgeon General, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. Oral Health in America: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Public Health Service; 2000. NIH publication 00-4713.
- Ostberg AL., et al. “Oral impacts on daily performances: associations with self-reported general health and medication”. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica 67.6 (2009): 370-376.
- Adair SM. “Dietary counseling: time for a nutritionist in the office?”. Pediatric Dentistry 26.5 (2004): 389.
- Vann WF., et al. “The childhood obesity epidemic: a role for pediatric dentists?”. Pediatric Dentistry 27.4 (2005): 271-276.
- Eidelman AI and Schanler RJ. “American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Breastfeeding. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk”. Pediatrics 129.3 (2012): e827-e841.
- World Health Organization. Fifty-Fourth World Health Assembly. Global strategy for infant and young child feeding: the optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Provisional agenda item 13.1. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.
- Garofalo RP and Goldman A S. “Expression of functional immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory factors in human milk”. Clinics in Perinatology 26.2 (1999): 361-377.
- Sabirov A., et al. “Breastfeeding is associated with a reduced frequency of acute otitis media and high serum antibody levels against NTHi and outer membrane protein vaccine antigen candidate P6”. Pediatric Research 66.5 (2009): 565-570.
- Newburg DS., et al. Ruiz-Palacios GM, Morrow AL. “Human milk glycans protect infants against enteric pathogens”. Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005): 37-58.
- Glick M. “A concern that cannot weight”. The Journal of the American Dental Association 136.5 (2005): 572-574.
- Vennemann MM., et al. “Does breastfeeding reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome?”. Pediatrics 123.3 (2009): e406-e410.
- Mayer-Davis EJ., et al. “Breast-feeding and risk for childhood obesity: does maternal diabetes or obesity status matter?”. Diabetes Care 29.10 (2006): 2231-2237.
- Heinig MJ., and Dewey, K G. “Health effects of breast feeding for mothers: a critical review”. Nutrition Research Reviews 10.1 (1997): 35-56.
- Risch HA. “Hormonal etiology of epithelial ovarian cancer, with a hypothesis concerning the role of androgens and progesterone”. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 90.23 (1998): 1774-1786.
- McNeilly AS. “Lactational control of reproduction”. Reproduction, Fertility and Development 13.7-8 (2001): 583-590.
- Zafar S., et al. “Early childhood caries: etiology, clinical considerations, consequences and management”. International Dentistry SA 11.4: 24-36.
- Ribeiro NM and Ribeiro MA. “Breastfeeding and early childhood caries: a critical review”. Journal de Pediatria 80.5 Suppl (2004): S199-210.
- Schiff M., et al. “The impact of cosmetic breast implants on breastfeeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. International Breastfeeding Journal 9 (2014): 17.
Journal Menu
PubMed Indexed Article
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
LC-UV-MS and MS/MS Characterize Glutathione Reactivity with Different Isomers (2,2' and 2,4' vs. 4,4') of Methylene Diphenyl-Diisocyanate.
PMID: 31143884 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6536005
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
Alzheimer's Pathogenesis, Metal-Mediated Redox Stress, and Potential Nanotheranostics.
PMID: 31565701 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6764777
EC Neurology
Differences in Rate of Cognitive Decline and Caregiver Burden between Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia: a Retrospective Study.
PMID: 27747317 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5065347
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
Will Blockchain Technology Transform Healthcare and Biomedical Sciences?
PMID: 31460519 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6711478
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
Is it a Prime Time for AI-powered Virtual Drug Screening?
PMID: 30215059 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6133253
EC Psychology and Psychiatry
Analysis of Evidence for the Combination of Pro-dopamine Regulator (KB220PAM) and Naltrexone to Prevent Opioid Use Disorder Relapse.
PMID: 30417173 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6226033
EC Anaesthesia
Arrest Under Anesthesia - What was the Culprit? A Case Report.
PMID: 30264037 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6155992
EC Orthopaedics
Distraction Implantation. A New Technique in Total Joint Arthroplasty and Direct Skeletal Attachment.
PMID: 30198026 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6124505
EC Pulmonology and Respiratory Medicine
Prevalence and factors associated with self-reported chronic obstructive pulmonary disease among adults aged 40-79: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007-2012.
PMID: 30294723 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6169793
EC Dental Science
Important Dental Fiber-Reinforced Composite Molding Compound Breakthroughs
PMID: 29285526 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5743211
EC Microbiology
Prevalence of Intestinal Parasites Among HIV Infected and HIV Uninfected Patients Treated at the 1o De Maio Health Centre in Maputo, Mozambique
PMID: 29911204 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5999047
EC Microbiology
Macrophages and the Viral Dissemination Super Highway
PMID: 26949751 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC4774560
EC Microbiology
The Microbiome, Antibiotics, and Health of the Pediatric Population.
PMID: 27390782 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC4933318
EC Microbiology
Reactive Oxygen Species in HIV Infection
PMID: 28580453 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5450819
EC Microbiology
A Review of the CD4 T Cell Contribution to Lung Infection, Inflammation and Repair with a Focus on Wheeze and Asthma in the Pediatric Population
PMID: 26280024 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC4533840
EC Neurology
Identifying Key Symptoms Differentiating Myalgic Encephalomyelitis and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome from Multiple Sclerosis
PMID: 28066845 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5214344
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
Paradigm Shift is the Normal State of Pharmacology
PMID: 28936490 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5604476
EC Neurology
Examining those Meeting IOM Criteria Versus IOM Plus Fibromyalgia
PMID: 28713879 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5510658
EC Neurology
Unilateral Frontosphenoid Craniosynostosis: Case Report and a Review of the Literature
PMID: 28133641 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5267489
EC Ophthalmology
OCT-Angiography for Non-Invasive Monitoring of Neuronal and Vascular Structure in Mouse Retina: Implication for Characterization of Retinal Neurovascular Coupling
PMID: 29333536 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5766278
EC Neurology
Longer Duration of Downslope Treadmill Walking Induces Depression of H-Reflexes Measured during Standing and Walking.
PMID: 31032493 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6483108
EC Microbiology
Onchocerciasis in Mozambique: An Unknown Condition for Health Professionals.
PMID: 30957099 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6448571
EC Nutrition
Food Insecurity among Households with and without Podoconiosis in East and West Gojjam, Ethiopia.
PMID: 30101228 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6086333
EC Ophthalmology
REVIEW. +2 to +3 D. Reading Glasses to Prevent Myopia.
PMID: 31080964 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6508883
EC Gynaecology
Biomechanical Mapping of the Female Pelvic Floor: Uterine Prolapse Versus Normal Conditions.
PMID: 31093608 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6513001
EC Dental Science
Fiber-Reinforced Composites: A Breakthrough in Practical Clinical Applications with Advanced Wear Resistance for Dental Materials.
PMID: 31552397 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6758937
EC Microbiology
Neurocysticercosis in Child Bearing Women: An Overlooked Condition in Mozambique and a Potentially Missed Diagnosis in Women Presenting with Eclampsia.
PMID: 31681909 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6824723
EC Microbiology
Molecular Detection of Leptospira spp. in Rodents Trapped in the Mozambique Island City, Nampula Province, Mozambique.
PMID: 31681910 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6824726
EC Neurology
Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondrial Cross-Talk in Neurodegenerative and Eye Diseases.
PMID: 31528859 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6746603
EC Psychology and Psychiatry
Can Chronic Consumption of Caffeine by Increasing D2/D3 Receptors Offer Benefit to Carriers of the DRD2 A1 Allele in Cocaine Abuse?
PMID: 31276119 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6604646
EC Anaesthesia
Real Time Locating Systems and sustainability of Perioperative Efficiency of Anesthesiologists.
PMID: 31406965 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6690616
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
A Pilot STEM Curriculum Designed to Teach High School Students Concepts in Biochemical Engineering and Pharmacology.
PMID: 31517314 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6741290
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
Toxic Mechanisms Underlying Motor Activity Changes Induced by a Mixture of Lead, Arsenic and Manganese.
PMID: 31633124 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6800226
EC Neurology
Research Volunteers' Attitudes Toward Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis.
PMID: 29662969 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC5898812
EC Pharmacology and Toxicology
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease.
PMID: 30215058 [PubMed]
PMCID: PMC6133268
News and Events
February Issue Release
We always feel pleasure to share our updates with you all. Here, notifying you that we have successfully released the February issue of respective journals and the latest articles can be viewed on the current issue pages.
Submission Deadline for Upcoming Issue
ECronicon delightfully welcomes all the authors around the globe for effective collaboration with an article submission for the upcoming issue of respective journals. Submissions are accepted on/before February 17, 2023.
Certificate of Publication
ECronicon honors with a "Publication Certificate" to the corresponding author by including the names of co-authors as a token of appreciation for publishing the work with our respective journals.
Best Article of the Issue
Editors of respective journals will always be very much interested in electing one Best Article after each issue release. The authors of the selected article will be honored with a "Best Article of the Issue" certificate.
Certifying for Review
ECronicon certifies the Editors for their first review done towards the assigned article of the respective journals.
Latest Articles
The latest articles will be updated immediately on the articles in press page of the respective journals.